Presentation on the topic “Milky Way in physics. Astronomy: Milky Way. Our Galaxy Student of the Baku Computer College Aslanov Murad. Milky Way presentation to physics

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Introduction The Milky Way Galaxy, also called simply the Galaxy (with a capital letter), is a giant star system that contains, among others, our Sun, all individual stars visible to the naked eye, as well as a huge number of stars merging together and observed in the form of a milky ways. Our Galaxy is one of many other galaxies. The Milky Way is a Hubble SBbc barred spiral galaxy, and together with the Andromeda galaxy M31 and the Triangulum galaxy (M33), as well as several smaller satellite galaxies, it forms the Local Group, which in turn is part of the Virgo Supercluster.

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The Milky Way (translation of the Latin name Via Lactea, from the Greek word Galaxia (gala, galactos means “milk”)) is a dimly luminous diffuse whitish stripe crossing the starry sky almost along the Great Circle, the north pole of which is located in the constellation Coma Berenices; consists of a huge number of faint stars, not individually visible to the naked eye, but individually visible through a telescope or in photographs taken with sufficient resolution.

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The visible picture of the Milky Way is a consequence of perspective when observing from inside a huge, highly oblate cluster of stars in our Galaxy by an observer located near the plane of symmetry of this cluster. The Milky Way is also the traditional name for our Galaxy. The brightness of the Milky Way is uneven in different places. The strip of the Milky Way with a width of about 5-30° has an appearance of a cloudy structure, due, firstly, to the existence of stellar clouds or condensations in the Galaxy and, secondly, to the uneven distribution of light-absorbing dusty dark nebulae, forming areas with an apparent deficiency of stars from for absorbing their light. In the Northern Hemisphere, the Milky Way passes through the constellations Aquila, Sagittarius, Chanterelle, Cygnus, Cepheus, Cassiopeia, Perseus, Auriga, Taurus and Gemini. Moving into the Southern Hemisphere, it captures the constellations Monoceros, Puppis, Velae, Southern Cross, Compass, Southern Triangle, Scorpio and Sagittarius. The Milky Way is especially bright in the constellation Sagittarius, which contains the center of our star system and is believed to contain a supermassive black hole. The constellation Sagittarius in northern latitudes does not rise high above the horizon. Therefore, in this area the Milky Way is not as noticeable as, say, in the constellation Cygnus, which rises very high above the horizon in the fall in the evenings. The midline within the Milky Way is the galactic equator.

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Mythology There are many legends telling about the origin of the Milky Way. Two similar ancient Greek myths deserve special attention, which reveal the etymology of the word Galaxias (Γαλαξίας) and its connection with milk (γάλα). One of the legends tells about the mother’s milk spilling across the sky from the goddess Hera, who was breastfeeding Hercules. When Hera found out that the baby she was breastfeeding was not her own child, but the illegitimate son of Zeus and an earthly woman, she pushed him away and the spilled milk became the Milky Way. Another legend says that the spilled milk is the milk of Rhea, the wife of Kronos, and the baby was Zeus himself. Kronos devoured his children because it was foretold that he would be dethroned from the top of the Pantheon by his own son. Rhea hatched a plan to save her sixth son, the newborn Zeus. She wrapped a stone in baby clothes and slipped it to Kronos. Kronos asked her to feed her son one more time before he swallowed him. The milk spilled from Rhea's breast onto a bare rock later became known as the Milky Way.

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Structure of the Galaxy Our Galaxy is about 30 thousand parsecs across and contains about 100 billion stars. The bulk of stars are located in the shape of a flat disk. The mass of the Galaxy is estimated at 5.8 × 1011 solar masses, or 1.15 × 1042 kg. Most of the Galaxy's mass is contained not in stars and interstellar gas, but in a non-luminous halo of dark matter. The Milky Way has a convex shape - like a plate or a hat with a brim. Moreover, the galaxy not only bends, but also vibrates like an eardrum.

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Satellites Scientists from the University of California, studying the prevalence of hydrogen in regions subject to distortion, found that these deformations are closely related to the position of the orbits of two satellite galaxies of the Milky Way - the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, which regularly pass through the dark matter surrounding it. There are other galaxies even less close to the Milky Way, but their role (satellites or bodies absorbed by the Milky Way) is unclear.

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Large Magellanic Cloud History of the study Designations LMC, LMC Observational data Type SBm Right ascension 05h 23m 34s Declination −69° 45′ 22″; Redshift 0.00093 Distance 168,000 light. years Visible magnitude 0.9 Visible dimensions 10.75° × 9.17° Constellation Doradus Physical characteristics Radius 10,000 light years years Properties The brightest satellite of the Milky Way

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The Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) is an SBm type dwarf galaxy located at a distance of about 50 kiloparsecs from our Galaxy. It occupies an area of ​​the sky in the southern hemisphere in the constellations Doradus and Table Mountain and is never visible from the territory of the Russian Federation. The LMC is about 20 times smaller in diameter than the Milky Way and contains approximately 5 billion stars (only 1/20 of the number in our Galaxy), while the Small Magellanic Cloud contains only 1.5 billion stars. In 1987, a supernova, SN 1987A, exploded in the Large Magellanic Cloud. This is the closest supernova to us since SN 1604. The LMC is home to a well-known source of active star formation - the Tarantula Nebula.

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Small Magellanic Cloud History of exploration Discoverer Ferdinand Magellan Date of discovery 1521 Designations NGC 292, ESO 29-21, A 0051-73, IRAS00510-7306, IMO, SMC, PGC 3085 Observational data Type SBm Right ascension 00h 52m 38.0s Declination −72° 48′ 00″ Distance 200,000 St. years (61,000 parsecs) Visible magnitude 2.2 Photographic magnitude 2.8 Visible dimensions 5° × 3° Surface brightness 14.1 Angular position 45° Constellation Toucan Physical characteristics Radius 7000 light. years Absolute magnitude −16.2 Properties Satellite of the Milky Way

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Arms The galaxy belongs to the class of spiral galaxies, which means that the Galaxy has spiral arms that are located in the plane of the disk. The disk is immersed in a spherical halo, and around it is a spherical crown. The solar system is located at a distance of 8.5 thousand parsecs from the galactic center, near the plane of the Galaxy (the offset to the North Pole of the Galaxy is only 10 parsecs), on the inner edge of the arm called the Orion arm. This arrangement does not make it possible to observe the shape of the sleeves visually.

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The Disk Core is immersed in a spherical halo, and around it is a spherical corona. In the middle part of the Galaxy there is a thickening called a bulge and is about 8 thousand parsecs in diameter. In the center of the Galaxy there is a small region with unusual properties, where, apparently, a supermassive black hole is located. The center of the galactic core is projected onto the constellation Sagittarius (α = 265°, δ = −29°). The distance to the center of the Galaxy is 8.5 kiloparsecs (2.62 · 1022 cm, or 27,700 light years).

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The galactic center is a relatively small region in the center of our Galaxy, the radius of which is about 1000 parsecs and the properties of which differ sharply from the properties of its other parts. Figuratively speaking, the galactic center is a cosmic “laboratory” in which star formation processes are still taking place and in which the core is located, which once gave rise to the condensation of our stellar system. The galactic center is located at a distance of 10 kpc from the solar system, in the direction of the constellation Sagittarius. A large amount of interstellar dust is concentrated in the galactic plane, due to which the light coming from the galactic center is attenuated by 30 stellar magnitudes, that is, 1012 times. Therefore, the center is invisible in the optical range - with the naked eye and with the help of optical telescopes. The galactic center is observed in the radio range, as well as in the infrared, x-ray and gamma ray ranges. An image measuring 400 by 900 light years, made up of several photographs from the Chandra telescope, with hundreds of white dwarfs, neutron stars and black holes, in clouds of gas heated to millions of degrees. Inside the bright spot at the center of the image is the supermassive black hole of the galactic center (radio source Sagittarius A*). The colors in the image correspond to the X-ray energy ranges: red (low), green (medium) and blue (high).

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Composition of the galactic center The largest feature of the galactic center is the star cluster located there (stellar bulge) in the form of an ellipsoid of revolution, the major semi-axis of which lies in the plane of the Galaxy, and the minor semi-axis lies on its axis. The ratio of the semi-axes is approximately 0.4. The orbital speed of stars at a distance of about a kiloparsec is approximately 270 km/s, and the orbital period is about 24 million years. Based on this, it turns out that the mass of the central cluster is approximately 10 billion solar masses. The concentration of cluster stars increases sharply towards the center. Stellar density varies approximately in proportion to R-1.8 (R is the distance from the center). At a distance of about a kiloparsec, it is several solar masses per cubic parsec, in the center - more than 300 thousand solar masses per cubic parsec (for comparison, in the vicinity of the Sun, the stellar density is about 0.07 solar masses per cubic parsec). Spiral gas arms extend from the cluster, extending to a distance of 3 - 4.5 thousand parsecs. The arms rotate around the galactic center and simultaneously move away to the sides, with a radial speed of about 50 km/s. The kinetic energy of motion is 1055 erg. A gas disk with a radius of about 700 parsecs and a mass of about one hundred million solar masses was discovered inside the cluster. Inside the disk there is a central region of star formation.

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An image made from a dozen Chandra telescope photographs covering an area 130 light-years across.

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Closer to the center is a rotating and expanding ring of molecular hydrogen, the mass of which is about one hundred thousand solar masses, and the radius is about 150 parsecs. The ring's rotation speed is 50 km/s, and its expansion speed is 140 km/s. The plane of rotation is inclined to the plane of the Galaxy by 10 degrees. In all likelihood, the radial movements in the galactic center are explained by an explosion that occurred there about 12 million years ago. The distribution of gas in the ring is uneven, forming huge clouds of gas and dust. The largest cloud is the Sagittarius B2 complex, located at a distance of 120 pc from the center. The diameter of the complex is 30 parsecs, and the mass is about 3 million solar masses. The complex is the largest star-forming region in the Galaxy. These clouds contain all kinds of molecular compounds found in space. Even closer to the center is the central dust cloud, with a radius of about 15 parsecs. Flashes of radiation are periodically observed in this cloud, the nature of which is unknown, but which indicate active processes occurring there. Almost in the very center there is a compact source of non-thermal radiation Sagittarius A*, the radius of which is 0.0001 parsecs, and the brightness temperature is about 10 million degrees. The radio emission from this source appears to be of a synchrotron nature. At times, rapid changes in the radiation flux are observed. No such radiation sources have been found anywhere else in the Galaxy, but similar sources exist in the cores of other galaxies.

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From the point of view of models of the evolution of galaxies, their nuclei are the centers of their condensation and initial star formation. The oldest stars should be there. Apparently, at the very center of the galactic core there is a supermassive black hole with a mass of about 3.7 million solar masses, as shown by studying the orbits of nearby stars. The emission of the Sagittarius A* source is caused by the accretion of gas onto a black hole, the radius of the emitting region (accretion disk, jets) is no more than 45 AU. The galactic center of the Milky Way in infrared.

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The Milky Way as a celestial phenomenon The Milky Way is observed in the sky as a dimly luminous diffuse whitish stripe passing approximately along a large circle of the celestial sphere. In the northern hemisphere, the Milky Way crosses the constellations Aquila, Sagittarius, Chanterelle, Cygnus, Cepheus, Cassiopeia, Perseus, Auriga, Taurus and Gemini; in the south - Unicorn, Poop, Sails, Southern Cross, Compasses, Southern Triangle, Scorpio and Sagittarius. The galactic center is located in Sagittarius.

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History of the discovery of the Galaxy Most celestial bodies are combined into various rotating systems. Thus, the Moon revolves around the Earth, the satellites of the giant planets form their own systems, rich in bodies. At a higher level, the Earth and the rest of the planets revolve around the Sun. The question is, is the Sun also part of some even larger system? The first systematic study of this issue was carried out in the 18th century. English astronomer William Herschel. He counted the number of stars in different areas of the sky and discovered that there was a large circle in the sky, which was later called the galactic equator, which divides the sky into two equal parts and on which the number of stars is greatest. In addition, the closer the part of the sky is to this circle, the more stars there are. Finally it was discovered that it was on this circle that the Milky Way was located. Thanks to this, Herschel guessed that all the stars we observed form a giant star system, which is flattened towards the galactic equator. And yet, the existence of the Galaxy remained in question until objects beyond the boundaries of our star system, in particular other galaxies, were discovered.

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William Herschel (Friedrich Wilhelm Herschel, English William Herschel; November 15, 1738, Hanover - August 25, 1822, Slough near London) - English astronomer of German origin. One of ten children of the poor musician Isaac Herschel. He entered service in a military orchestra (oboe player) and in 1755, as part of a regiment, he was sent from Hanover to England. In 1757 he left military service to study music. He worked as an organist and music teacher in Halifax, then moved to the resort town of Bath, where he became a manager of public concerts. Interest in musical theory led Herschel to mathematics, mathematics to optics, and finally optics to astronomy. In 1773, not having the funds to buy a large telescope, he began to grind mirrors and design telescopes himself, and subsequently made optical instruments himself, both for his own observations and for sale. Herschel's first and most important discovery, the discovery of the planet Uranus, occurred on March 13, 1781. Herschel dedicated this discovery to King George III and named it Georgium Sidus in his honor (the name never came into use); George III, himself a lover of astronomy and patron of the Hanoverians, promoted Herschel to the rank of Astronomer Royal and provided him with the funds to build a separate observatory.

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Thanks to some technical improvements and an increase in the diameter of the mirrors, Herschel was able in 1789 to produce the largest telescope of his time (main focal length 12 meters, mirror diameter 49½ inches (126 cm)); in the very first month of working with this telescope, Herschel discovered Saturn's satellites Mimas and Enceladus. Further, Herschel also discovered the satellites of Uranus, Titania and Oberon. In his works on the satellites of planets, Herschel first used the term “asteroid” (using it to characterize these satellites, because when observed by Herschel’s telescopes, large planets looked like disks, and their satellites looked like points, like stars). 40-foot Herschel telescope

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However, Herschel's main works relate to stellar astronomy. Studying the proper motion of stars led him to the discovery of the translational motion of the solar system. He also calculated the coordinates of an imaginary point - the apex of the Sun, in the direction of which this movement occurs. From observations of double stars undertaken to determine parallaxes, Herschel made an innovative conclusion about the existence of stellar systems (previously it was assumed that double stars were only randomly located in the sky in such a way that they were nearby when observed). Herschel also observed nebulae and comets extensively, also compiling careful descriptions and catalogs (their systematization and preparation for publication was carried out by Caroline Herschel). It is curious that outside of astronomy itself and the fields of physics closest to it, Herschel’s scientific views were very bizarre. He, for example, believed that all planets are inhabited, that under the hot atmosphere of the Sun there is a dense layer of clouds, and below is a solid surface of the planetary type, etc. Craters on the Moon, Mars and Mimas, as well as several new ones, are named after Herschel astronomical projects.

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Evolution and future of the Galaxy The history of the origin of galaxies is not yet entirely clear. Originally, the Milky Way had much more interstellar matter (mostly in the form of hydrogen and helium) than it does now, which was, and continues to be, used up to form stars. There is no reason to believe that this trend will change so that natural star formation should be expected to further decline over billions of years. Currently, stars are formed mainly in the arms. Collisions of the Milky Way with other galaxies are also possible, incl. from as large as the Andromeda Galaxy, however, specific predictions are not yet possible due to ignorance of the transverse velocity of extragalactic objects. In any case, no scientific model of the evolution of the Galaxy will be able to describe all possible consequences of the development of intelligent life, and therefore the fate of the Galaxy does not seem predictable.

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Andromeda Galaxy The Andromeda Galaxy or Andromeda Nebula (M31, NGC 224) is a Sb-type spiral galaxy. This other supergiant galaxy, closest to the Milky Way, is located in the constellation Andromeda and, according to the latest data, is distant from us at a distance of 772 kiloparsecs (2.52 million light years). The plane of the galaxy is inclined to us at an angle of 15°, its apparent size is 3.2°, its apparent magnitude is +3.4m. The Andromeda Galaxy has a mass 1.5 times greater than the Milky Way and is the largest in the Local Group: according to currently existing data, the Andromeda Galaxy (Nebula) includes about a trillion stars. It has several dwarf satellites: M32, M110, NGC 185, NGC 147 and possibly others. Its extent is 260,000 light years, which is 2.6 times greater than that of the Milky Way. In the night sky, the Andromeda Galaxy can be seen with the naked eye. In area, for an observer from Earth, it is equal to seven full Moons.

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Milky Way and Andromeda Galaxy Collision The Milky Way and Andromeda Galaxy Collision is a proposed collision between the two largest galaxies in the local group, the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy (M31), which will occur in approximately five billion years. It is often used as an example of this type of phenomenon in collision simulations. As with all such collisions, it is unlikely that objects such as the stars contained in each galaxy will actually collide due to the low concentration of matter in the galaxies and the extreme distance of the objects from each other. For example, the closest star to the Sun (Proxima Centauri) is almost thirty million solar diameters away from Earth (if the Sun were the size of a 1-inch coin, the nearest coin/star would be 765 kilometers away). If the theory is correct, the stars and gas of the Andromeda galaxy will be visible to the naked eye in about three billion years. If a collision occurs, the galaxies will most likely merge into one large galaxy.

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At the moment it is not known for sure whether a collision will occur or not. The Andromeda Galaxy's radial velocity relative to the Milky Way can be measured by studying the Doppler shift of spectral lines from the galaxy's stars, but the transverse velocity (or "proper motion") cannot be measured directly. Thus, it is known that the Andromeda Galaxy is approaching the Milky Way at a speed of about 120 km/s, but whether a collision will occur or the galaxies will simply separate cannot yet be determined. At the moment, the best indirect measurements of the transverse speed indicate that it does not exceed 100 km/s. This suggests that at least the dark matter haloes of the two galaxies will collide, even if the disks themselves do not collide. Planned for launch by the European Space Agency in 2011, the Gaia space telescope will measure the locations of stars in the Andromeda Galaxy with sufficient precision to establish transverse velocities. Frank Summers of the Space Telescope Science Institute created a computer visualization of the upcoming event, based on research by Professor Chris Migos of Case Western Reserve University and Lars Hernqvist of Harvard University. Such collisions are relatively common - Andromeda, for example, collided with at least one dwarf galaxy in the past, as did our Galaxy. It is also possible that our solar system will be thrown out of the new galaxy during the collision. Such an event will not have negative consequences for our system (especially after the Sun turns into a red giant in 5-6 billion years). The likelihood of any impact on the Sun or planets is low. Various names have been proposed for the newly formed galaxy, for example Milkomeda.

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Literature http://ru.wikipedia.org Yu. N. Efremov. Milky Way. Series "Science Today". Physical encyclopedia, edited by A. M. Prokhorov, article "Galactic Center". T. A. Agekyan, "Stars, galaxies, metagalaxy". Chandra X-ray Observatory: http://chandra.harvard .edu/ http://news.cosmoport.com/2006/11/21/3.htm

The structure of the Universe The structure of the Universe The Milky Way of ancient times The Milky Way The Galaxy contains, according to the lowest estimate, about 200 billion stars. The bulk of the stars are located in the shape of a flat disk. As of January 2009, the mass of the Galaxy is estimated at 3·10^12 solar masses, or 6·10^42 kg.

Core In the middle part of the Galaxy there is a thickening called a bulge, which is about 8 thousand parsecs in diameter. In the center of the Galaxy, there appears to be a supermassive black hole (Sagittarius A*), around which an intermediate-mass black hole is presumably rotating. Their joint gravitational effect on neighboring stars causes the latter to move along unusual trajectories. balgemangl.supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* The center of the galactic core is located in the constellation Sagittarius (α = 265°, δ = 29°). The distance from the Sun to the center of the Galaxy is 8.5 kiloparsecs (2.62·10^17 km, or light years). Constellation Sagittarius

Arms The galaxy belongs to the class of spiral galaxies, which means that the Galaxy has spiral arms located in the plane of the disk. The disk is immersed in a spherical halo, and around it is a spherical corona. The solar system is located at a distance of 8.5 thousand parsecs from the galactic center, near the plane of the Galaxy (the offset to the North Pole of the Galaxy is only 10 parsecs), on the inner edge of the arm called the Orion arm. This arrangement does not make it possible to observe the shape of the sleeves visually. New data from observations of molecular gas (CO) suggest that our Galaxy has two arms, starting at a bar in the inner part of the Galaxy. In addition, there are a couple more sleeves in the inner part. These arms then transform into a four-arm structure observed in the neutral hydrogen line in the outer parts of the Galaxy. The Galaxy belongs to the class of spiral galaxies, which means that the Galaxy has spiral arms located in the plane of the disk. The disk is immersed in a spherical halo, and around it is a spherical corona. The solar system is located at a distance of 8.5 thousand parsecs from the galactic center, near the plane of the Galaxy (the offset to the North Pole of the Galaxy is only 10 parsecs), on the inner edge of the arm called the Orion arm. This arrangement does not make it possible to observe the shape of the sleeves visually. New data from observations of molecular gas (CO) suggest that our Galaxy has two arms, starting at a bar in the inner part of the Galaxy. In addition, there are a couple more sleeves in the inner part. These arms then transform into a four-arm structure observed in the neutral hydrogen line in the outer parts of the Galaxy. halocoronaSolar system Orion armhalocoronaSolar system Orion arm

Halo A galaxy halo is the invisible component of a spherical galaxy that extends beyond the visible part of the galaxy. It mainly consists of tenuous hot gas, stars and dark matter. The latter makes up the bulk of the galaxy.galaxy spherical dark matter Galactic haloThe galactic halo has a spherical shape, extending beyond the galaxy by 510 thousand light years, and a temperature of about 5·10^5 K.

History of the discovery of the Galaxy Most celestial bodies are combined into various rotating systems. Thus, the Moon revolves around the Earth, the satellites of the giant planets form their own systems, rich in bodies. At a higher level, the Earth and the rest of the planets revolve around the Sun. A natural question arose: is the Sun also part of an even larger system? Most celestial bodies are combined into various rotating systems. Thus, the Moon revolves around the Earth, the satellites of the giant planets form their own systems, rich in bodies. At a higher level, the Earth and the rest of the planets revolve around the Sun. A natural question arose: is the Sun also part of an even larger system? MoonEarthsatellites of giant planetsplanets MoonEarthsatellites of giant planetsplanets The first systematic study of this issue was carried out in the 18th century by the English astronomer William Herschel. He counted the number of stars in different areas of the sky and discovered that there was a large circle in the sky (later it was called the galactic equator), which divides the sky into two equal parts and on which the number of stars is greatest. In addition, the closer the part of the sky is to this circle, the more stars there are. Finally it was discovered that it was on this circle that the Milky Way was located. Thanks to this, Herschel guessed that all the stars we observed form a giant star system, which is flattened towards the galactic equator. The first systematic study of this issue was carried out in the 18th century by the English astronomer William Herschel. He counted the number of stars in different areas of the sky and discovered that there was a large circle in the sky (later it was called the galactic equator), which divides the sky into two equal parts and on which the number of stars is greatest. In addition, the closer the part of the sky is to this circle, the more stars there are. Finally it was discovered that it was on this circle that the Milky Way was located. Thanks to this, Herschel guessed that all the stars we observed form a giant star system, which is flattened towards the galactic equator. XVIII century William Herschel galactic equator Milky Way nebulae may be galaxies like the Milky Way. As early as 1920, the question of the existence of extragalactic objects caused debate (for example, the famous Great Debate between Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis; the former defended the uniqueness of our Galaxy). Kant's hypothesis was finally proven only in the 1920s, when Edwin Hubble was able to measure the distance to some spiral nebulae and show that, due to their distance, they cannot be part of the Galaxy. At first it was assumed that all objects in the Universe are parts of our Galaxy, although Kant also suggested that some nebulae could be galaxies similar to the Milky Way. As early as 1920, the question of the existence of extragalactic objects caused debate (for example, the famous Great Debate between Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis; the former defended the uniqueness of our Galaxy). Kant's hypothesis was finally proven only in the 1920s, when Edwin Hubble managed to measure the distance to some spiral nebulae and show that, due to their distance, they cannot be part of the Galaxy. Kant 1920 Great Controversy Harlow Shapley by Geber Curtis Edwin Hubble Kant 1920 Great Controversy Harlow Shapley Geber Curtis Edwin Hubble

Early Attempts at Classification Attempts to classify galaxies began simultaneously with the discovery of the first spiral-patterned nebulae by Lord Ross in However, at that time the prevailing theory was that all nebulae belonged to our Galaxy. The fact that a number of nebulae are of a non-galactic nature was proven only by E. Hubble in 1924. Thus, galaxies were classified in the same way as galactic nebulae. galaxies of nebulae with a spiral pattern by Lord Ross in our Galaxy by E. Hubble in 1924. Early photographic surveys were dominated by spiral nebulae, which made it possible to distinguish them into a separate class. In 1888, A. Roberts carried out a deep survey of the sky, as a result of which a large number of elliptical structureless and very elongated fusiform nebulae were discovered. In 1918, G. D. Curtis identified barred helices with a ring-shaped structure as a separate group of Φ-groups. In addition, he interpreted fusiform nebulae as spirals visible edge-on. 1888 A. Robertselliptic structureless fusiforms 1918 G. D. Curtis jumper

Harvard classification All galaxies in the Harvard classification were divided into 5 classes: All galaxies in the Harvard classification were divided into 5 classes: Class A galaxies brighter than 12m Class A galaxies brighter than 12mm Class B galaxies from 12m to 14m Class B galaxies from 12m to 14mm Class C galaxies from 14m to 16m Class C galaxies from 14m to 16mm Class D galaxies from 16m to 18m Class D galaxies from 16m to 18mm Class E galaxies from 18m to 20m Class E galaxies from 18m to 20mm

Elliptical galaxies Elliptical galaxies have a smooth elliptical shape (from highly flattened to almost circular) without distinctive features with a uniform decrease in brightness from the center to the periphery. They are designated by the letter E and a number, which is an index of the oblateness of the galaxy. So, a round galaxy will be designated E0, and a galaxy in which one of the semi-major axes is twice as large as the other will be designated E5. Elliptical galaxies have a smooth elliptical shape (from highly oblate to almost circular) without distinctive features with a uniform decrease in brightness from the center to the periphery. They are designated by the letter E and a number, which is an index of the oblateness of the galaxy. So, a round galaxy will be designated E0, and a galaxy in which one of the semi-major axes is twice as large as the other will be designated E5. Elliptical galaxies Elliptical galaxies M87

Spiral galaxies Spiral galaxies consist of a flattened disk of stars and gas, at the center of which is a spherical condensation called a bulge, and an extensive spherical halo. Bright spiral arms are formed in the plane of the disk, consisting mainly of young stars, gas and dust. Hubble divided all known spiral galaxies into normal spirals (denoted by the symbol S) and barred spirals (SB), which in the Russian literature are often called barred or crossed galaxies. In normal spirals, the spiral arms extend tangentially from a central bright core and extend throughout one turn. The number of branches can be different: 1, 2, 3,... but most often there are galaxies with only two branches. In crossed galaxies, spiral arms extend at right angles from the ends of the bar. Among them, there are also galaxies with the number of branches not equal to two, but, for the most part, crossed galaxies have two spiral branches. The symbols a, b, or c are added depending on whether the spiral arms are tightly coiled or ragged, or on the ratio of core to bulge sizes. Thus, Sa galaxies are characterized by a large bulge and a tightly twisted regular structure, while Sc galaxies are characterized by a small bulge and a ragged spiral structure. The Sb subclass includes galaxies that, for some reason, cannot be classified into one of the extreme subclasses: Sa or Sc. Thus, the M81 galaxy has a large bulge and a ragged spiral structure. Spiral galaxies consist of a flattened disk of stars and gas, at the center of which is a spherical condensation called a bulge, and an extensive spherical halo. Bright spiral arms are formed in the plane of the disk, consisting mainly of young stars, gas and dust. Hubble divided all known spiral galaxies into normal spirals (denoted by the symbol S) and barred spirals (SB), which in the Russian literature are often called barred or crossed galaxies. In normal spirals, the spiral arms extend tangentially from a central bright core and extend throughout one turn. The number of branches can be different: 1, 2, 3,... but most often there are galaxies with only two branches. In crossed galaxies, spiral arms extend at right angles from the ends of the bar. Among them, there are also galaxies with the number of branches not equal to two, but, for the most part, crossed galaxies have two spiral branches. The symbols a, b, or c are added depending on whether the spiral arms are tightly coiled or ragged, or on the ratio of core to bulge sizes. Thus, Sa galaxies are characterized by a large bulge and a tightly twisted regular structure, while Sc galaxies are characterized by a small bulge and a ragged spiral structure. The Sb subclass includes galaxies that, for some reason, cannot be classified into one of the extreme subclasses: Sa or Sc. Thus, the M81 galaxy has a large bulge and a ragged spiral structure. Spiral galaxiesbaljamhalo bar Spiral galaxiesbaljamhalo bar

Irregular or irregular galaxies Irregular or irregular galaxies are galaxies lacking both rotational symmetry and a significant core. A typical representative of irregular galaxies are the Magellanic clouds. There was even the term “Magellanic nebulae.” Irregular galaxies come in a variety of shapes, are typically small in size, and contain an abundance of gas, dust, and young stars. They are designated I. Due to the fact that the shape of irregular galaxies is not firmly defined, how irregular galaxies are often classified as peculiar galaxies. Irregular or irregular galaxies are galaxies lacking both rotational symmetry and a significant core. A typical representative of irregular galaxies are the Magellanic clouds. There was even the term “Magellanic nebulae.” Irregular galaxies come in a variety of shapes, are typically small in size, and contain an abundance of gas, dust, and young stars. They are designated I. Due to the fact that the shape of irregular galaxies is not firmly defined, how irregular galaxies are often classified as peculiar galaxies. Irregular or irregular galaxies Magellanic clouds peculiar galaxies Irregular or irregular galaxies Magellanic clouds peculiar galaxies M82

Lenticular galaxies Lenticular galaxies are disk galaxies (like spiral galaxies) that have spent or lost their interstellar matter (like ellipticals). In cases where the galaxy faces the observer, it is often difficult to clearly distinguish between lenticular and elliptical galaxies due to the featurelessness of the spiral arms of the lenticular galaxy. Lenticular galaxies are disk galaxies (like spiral galaxies) that have spent or lost their interstellar matter (like ellipticals). In cases where the galaxy faces the observer, it is often difficult to clearly distinguish between lenticular and elliptical galaxies due to the featurelessness of the spiral arms of the lenticular galaxy. disk galaxies and interstellar matter disk galaxies and interstellar matter NGC 5866

A black hole is a region in space-time whose gravitational attraction is so strong that even objects moving at the speed of light (including quanta of light itself) cannot leave it. A black hole is a region in space-time, the gravitational attraction of which is so strong that even objects moving at the speed of light (including quanta of light itself) cannot leave it. space-time gravitational attraction at the speed of light quanta of light space-time gravitational attraction at the speed of light quanta of light The boundary of this region is called the event horizon, and its characteristic size is the gravitational radius. In the simplest case of a spherically symmetric black hole, it is equal to the Schwarzschild radius. The question of the real existence of black holes is closely related to how correct the theory of gravity is, from which their existence follows. In modern physics, the standard theory of gravity, best confirmed experimentally, is the general theory of relativity (GTR), which confidently predicts the possibility of the formation of black holes (but their existence is also possible within the framework of other (not all) models, see: Alternative theories of gravity). Therefore, observational data are analyzed and interpreted, first of all, in the context of general relativity, although, strictly speaking, this theory is not experimentally confirmed for conditions corresponding to the region of space-time in the immediate vicinity of black holes of stellar masses (however, it is well confirmed in conditions corresponding to supermassive black holes). Therefore, statements about direct evidence of the existence of black holes, including in this article below, strictly speaking, should be understood in the sense of confirmation of the existence of astronomical objects that are so dense and massive, as well as having some other observable properties, that they can be interpreted as black holes general theory of relativity. The boundary of this region is called the event horizon, and its characteristic size is called the gravitational radius. In the simplest case of a spherically symmetric black hole, it is equal to the Schwarzschild radius. The question of the real existence of black holes is closely related to how correct the theory of gravity is, from which their existence follows. In modern physics, the standard theory of gravity, best confirmed experimentally, is the general theory of relativity (GTR), which confidently predicts the possibility of the formation of black holes (but their existence is also possible within the framework of other (not all) models, see below). : Alternative theories of gravity). Therefore, observational data are analyzed and interpreted, first of all, in the context of general relativity, although, strictly speaking, this theory is not experimentally confirmed for conditions corresponding to the region of space-time in the immediate vicinity of black holes of stellar masses (however, it is well confirmed in conditions corresponding to supermassive black holes). Therefore, statements about direct evidence of the existence of black holes, including in this article below, strictly speaking, should be understood in the sense of confirmation of the existence of astronomical objects that are so dense and massive, as well as having some other observable properties, that they can be interpreted as black holes general theory of relativity.event horizongravitational radiusSchwarzschild radius theory of gravitygeneral theory of relativity Alternative theories of gravityevent horizongravitational radiusSchwarzschild radius theory of gravitygeneral theory of relativity Alternative theories of gravity

A magnetar or magnetar is a neutron star that has an exceptionally strong magnetic field (up to 1011 Tesla). The theoretical existence of magnetars was predicted in 1992, and the first evidence of their real existence was obtained in 1998 when a powerful burst of gamma-ray and X-ray radiation was observed from the SGR source in the constellation Aquila. The lifetime of magnetars is short, it is about years. Magnetars are a little-studied type of neutron star due to the fact that few are close enough to Earth. Magnetars are about 20 km in diameter, but most have masses greater than the mass of the Sun. The magnetar is so compressed that a pea of ​​its matter would weigh more than 100 million tons. Most of the known magnetars rotate very quickly, at least several rotations around their axis per second. The life cycle of a magnetar is quite short. Their strong magnetic fields disappear after about years, after which their activity and emission of X-rays cease. According to one assumption, up to 30 million magnetars could have formed in our galaxy during its entire existence. Magnetars are formed from massive stars with an initial mass of about 40 M. A magnetar or magnetar is a neutron star that has an exceptionally strong magnetic field (up to 1011 Tesla). The theoretical existence of magnetars was predicted in 1992, and the first evidence of their real existence was obtained in 1998 when a powerful burst of gamma-ray and X-ray radiation was observed from the SGR source in the constellation Aquila. The lifetime of magnetars is short, it is about years. Magnetars are a little-studied type of neutron star due to the fact that few are close enough to Earth. Magnetars are about 20 km in diameter, but most have masses greater than the mass of the Sun. The magnetar is so compressed that a pea of ​​its matter would weigh more than 100 million tons. Most of the known magnetars rotate very quickly, at least several rotations around their axis per second. The life cycle of a magnetar is quite short. Their strong magnetic fields disappear after about years, after which their activity and emission of X-rays cease. According to one assumption, up to 30 million magnetars could have formed in our galaxy during its entire existence. Magnetars are formed from massive stars with an initial mass of about 40 M. neutron star magnetic field T19921998 gamma-ray radiation SGR Eagle neutron stars Earth's Sun our galaxy neutron star magnetic field T1992 1998 gamma-ray radiation SGR Eagle neutron stars Earth's Sun our galaxy Shocks formed on the surface of the magnetar cause huge fluctuations in the stars e, a Also, the magnetic field fluctuations that accompany them often lead to huge bursts of gamma radiation, which were recorded on Earth in 1979, 1998 and 2004. The magnetic field of a neutron star is a million million times greater than the magnetic field of the Earth. The tremors formed on the surface of the magnetar cause huge fluctuations in the star, and the magnetic field fluctuations that accompany them often lead to huge bursts of gamma radiation that have been recorded on Earth in 1979, 1998 and 2004. The magnetic field of a neutron star is a million million times greater than the Earth's magnetic field.
A pulsar is a cosmic source of radio (radio pulsar), optical (optical pulsar), x-ray (x-ray pulsar) and/or gamma (gamma pulsar) radiation coming to Earth in the form of periodic bursts (pulses). According to the dominant astrophysical model, pulsars are rotating neutron stars with a magnetic field that is inclined to the rotation axis, which causes modulation of the radiation arriving at Earth. The first pulsar was discovered in June 1967 by Jocelyn Bell, a graduate student of E. Hewish, at the Meridian Radio Telescope of the Mallard Radio Astronomy Observatory, University of Cambridge, at a wavelength of 3.5 m (85.7 MHz). For this outstanding result, Hewish received the Nobel Prize in 1974. The modern names of this pulsar are PSR B or PSR J. Pulsar is a cosmic source of radio (radio pulsar), optical (optical pulsar), x-ray (x-ray pulsar) and/or gamma (gamma pulsar) radiation coming to Earth in the form of periodic bursts (pulses). ). According to the dominant astrophysical model, pulsars are rotating neutron stars with a magnetic field that is inclined to the rotation axis, which causes modulation of the radiation arriving at Earth. The first pulsar was discovered in June 1967 by Jocelyn Bell, a graduate student of E. Hewish, at the Meridian Radio Telescope of the Mallard Radio Astronomy Observatory, University of Cambridge, at a wavelength of 3.5 m (85.7 MHz). For this outstanding result, Hewish received the Nobel Prize in 1974. The modern names of this pulsar are PSR B or PSR J cosmic radio-radio pulsar optical optical pulsar x-ray x-ray pulsar gamma-gamma pulsar Earth periodic pulses astrophysical neutron stars magnetic fields rotational modulation 1967 Jocelyn Bella graduate student E. Huish radio telescope Mallard Radio Astronomy Observatory Cambridge University wavelength 1974 Nobel Prize PSR B space radio-radio pulsar optical optical pulsar x-ray x-ray pulsar gamma-gamma pulsar Earth periodic pulses astrophysical neutron stars magnetic fields rotation modulation 1967 Jocelyn Bella graduate student E. Hewish radio telescope Mallard Radio Astronomy Observatory, University of Cambridge wavelength 1974 Nobel Prize PSR B The observation results were kept secret for several months, and the first discovered pulsar was given the name LGM-1 (short for Little Green Men). This name was associated with the assumption that these strictly periodic pulses of radio emission are of artificial origin. However, a Doppler frequency shift (typical of a source orbiting a star) was not detected. In addition, Huish's group found 3 more sources of similar signals. After this, the hypothesis about signals from an extraterrestrial civilization disappeared, and in February 1968, a report appeared in the journal Nature about the discovery of rapidly changing extraterrestrial radio sources of an unknown nature with a highly stable frequency. The observation results were kept secret for several months, and the first discovered pulsar was given the name LGM-1 (short for Little Green Men). This name was associated with the assumption that these strictly periodic pulses of radio emission are of artificial origin. However, a Doppler frequency shift (typical of a source orbiting a star) was not detected. In addition, Huish's group found 3 more sources of similar signals. After this, the hypothesis about signals from an extraterrestrial civilization disappeared, and in February 1968, a message appeared in the journal Nature about the discovery of rapidly changing extraterrestrial radio sources of an unknown nature with a highly stable frequency. little green men Doppler shift 1968 Nature little green men Doppler shift 1968 Nature The message caused a scientific sensation. By the end of 1968, various observatories around the world had discovered another 58 objects called pulsars; the number of publications devoted to them in the first years after the discovery amounted to several hundred. Astrophysicists soon came to a general consensus that a pulsar, or more precisely a radio pulsar, was a neutron star. It emits narrowly directed streams of radio emission, and as a result of the rotation of the neutron star, the stream enters the field of view of an external observer at regular intervals, thus forming pulsar pulses. The message caused a scientific sensation. By the end of 1968, various observatories around the world had discovered another 58 objects called pulsars; the number of publications devoted to them in the first years after the discovery amounted to several hundred. Astrophysicists soon came to a general consensus that a pulsar, or more precisely a radio pulsar, was a neutron star. It emits narrowly directed streams of radio emission, and as a result of the rotation of the neutron star, the stream enters the field of view of an external observer at regular intervals, thus forming pulsar pulses. The closest of them are located at a distance of about 0.12 kpc (about 390 light years) from the Sun. As of 2008, about 1,790 radio pulsars are already known (according to the ATNF catalogue). The closest of them are located at a distance of about 0.12 kpc (about 390 light years) from the Sun. Like radio and X-ray pulsars, they are highly magnetized neutron stars. Unlike radio pulsars, which expend their own rotational energy on radiation, X-ray pulsars emit due to the accretion of matter from a neighboring star, which fills its Roche lobe and, under the influence of the pulsar, gradually turns into a white dwarf. As a result, the mass of the pulsar slowly grows, its moment of inertia and rotation frequency increase, while radio pulsars, on the contrary, slow down over time. An ordinary pulsar rotates in a time ranging from a few seconds to a few tenths of a second, while an X-ray pulsar rotates hundreds of times per second. Somewhat later, sources of periodic X-ray radiation were discovered, called X-ray pulsars. Like radio and X-ray pulsars, they are highly magnetized neutron stars. Unlike radio pulsars, which expend their own rotational energy on radiation, X-ray pulsars emit due to the accretion of matter from a neighboring star, which fills its Roche lobe and, under the influence of the pulsar, gradually turns into a white dwarf. As a result, the mass of the pulsar slowly grows, its moment of inertia and rotation frequency increase, while radio pulsars, on the contrary, slow down over time. An ordinary pulsar rotates in a time ranging from a few seconds to a few tenths of a second, while an X-ray pulsar rotates hundreds of times per second. X-ray pulsars accretion Rocham cavity Moment of inertia rotation frequency X-ray pulsars accretion Rocham cavity Moment of inertia rotation frequency

amazingly beautiful and bright. There are many brightly glowing star clouds in the constellations Sagittarius, Scorpio, and Scutum. It is in this direction that the center of our Galaxy is located. In this same part of the Milky Way, dark clouds of cosmic dust - dark nebulae - stand out especially clearly. If these dark, opaque nebulae were not present, the Milky Way towards the center of the Galaxy would be a thousand times brighter. Looking at the Milky Way, it is not easy to imagine that it consists of many stars indistinguishable to the naked eye. But people figured this out a long time ago. One of these guesses is attributed to the scientist and philosopher of Ancient Greece, Democritus. He lived almost two thousand years earlier than Galileo, who first proved the stellar nature of the Milky Way based on telescope observations. In his famous “Starry Messenger” in 1609, Galileo wrote: “I turned to the observation of the essence or substance of the Milky Way, and with the help of a telescope it turned out to be possible to make it so accessible to our vision that all disputes fell silent by themselves thanks to the clarity and evidence that I am freed from a long-winded debate. In fact, the Milky Way is nothing more than a countless number of stars, as if located in heaps, no matter what area the telescope is pointed at, a huge number of stars now become visible, many of which are quite bright and quite visible, but the number weaker stars cannot be counted at all.” What relation do the stars of the Milky Way have to the only star in the solar system, our Sun? The answer is now generally known. The Sun is one of the stars of our Galaxy, the Milky Way Galaxy. What place does the Sun occupy in the Milky Way? Already from the fact that the Milky Way encircles our sky in a large circle, scientists have concluded that the Sun is located near the main plane of the Milky Way. In order to get a more accurate idea of ​​the position of the Sun in the Milky Way, and then to imagine what the shape of our Galaxy is in space, astronomers (V. Herschel, V. Ya. Struve, etc.) used the method of star counts. The point is that in different parts of the sky the number of stars in a successive interval of stellar magnitudes is counted. If we assume that the luminosities of the stars are the same, then from the observed brightness we can judge the distances to the stars, then, assuming that the stars are evenly distributed in space, we consider the number of stars that are in spherical volumes centered on the Sun.

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Milky Way

One of the most remarkable objects in the starry sky is the Milky Way. The ancient Greeks called it galaxias, meaning "milk circle". Already the first telescope observations carried out by Galileo showed that the Milky Way is a cluster of very distant and faint stars.

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Southern Milky Way

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At the beginning of the twentieth century, it became obvious that almost all visible matter in the Universe is concentrated in giant star-gas islands with a characteristic size from several parsecs to several tens of kiloparsecs. The Sun, along with the stars around it, is also part of a spiral galaxy, always designated with a capital letter: Galaxy.

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Galaxy

The galaxy consists of a disk, a halo and a corona. Central, most compact area
The galaxy is called the nucleus. The central, densest part of the halo within
several thousand light years from the center of the Galaxy is called a bulge.

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The galaxy emits in all ranges of electromagnetic radiation.

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The location of the Sun in our Galaxy is rather unfortunate for studying this system as a whole: we are located near the plane of the stellar disk, and it is difficult to determine the structure of the Galaxy from Earth. In addition, in the region where the Sun is located, there is quite a lot of interstellar matter. It absorbs light and makes the stellar disk almost opaque to visible light in some directions, especially towards the galactic core. Therefore, studies of other galaxies play a huge role in understanding the nature of our Galaxy. The mass of the Galaxy is estimated at 200 billion (2∙1011) solar masses, but only two billion stars (2∙109) are observable.

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This is what our Galaxy looks like from the side

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This is what our Galaxy looks like flat on its face.

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Star clusters

In the Galaxy, every third star is double, and there are systems of three or more stars. More complex objects are also known - star clusters. Open star clusters occur near the galactic plane.

Open cluster M50 in the constellation Monoceros

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• More than 1,200 open clusters are now known, of which about 500 have been studied in detail.
• The most famous among them are the Pleiades and Hyades in the constellation Taurus.
• The total number of open clusters in the Galaxy may reach one hundred thousand.