What contribution Vesalius Andreas made to science, you will learn from this article.

Andreas Vesalius's contributions to biology in brief

Andreas Vesalius(years of life 1514 - 1564) was a famous doctor of the Middle Ages. He is the founder of anatomy and entered the history of critical care medicine as the author of the first written description of the tracheostomy operation, which he performed during an experiment on an animal for artificial ventilation of the lungs in 1543. Andreas Vesalius, whose achievements became the impetus for the development of many modern sciences, made many more discoveries.

In 1543, Andreas Vesalius published his famous work entitled “On the Structure of the Human Body.” The book contained not only text, but demonstrative pictures. But the most important thing is that in the work the doctor pointed out and corrected more than 200 mistakes of the then famous scientist Galen, whose authority subsequently suffered greatly. It was the work “On the Structure of the Human Body” that laid the foundation for the development of modern anatomy.

Andreas Vesalius' contributions to anatomy consisted mainly in the fact that he compiled anatomical terminology in Latin. The scientist removed from the terminology all words that remained from the Middle Ages and minimized all terms of Greek origin. The doctor also described a technique for boiling bones to obtain a high-quality skeleton for study. He managed to create the foundation for the development of surgery and anatomy in the future. His graphic methods refuted the relationship between medicine and astrology. All of Vesalius's research was based on autopsies of deceased people, which was previously very much criticized by the church.

Andreas Vesalius's contributions to medicine is also based on the following statements, which contradicted the then widespread theses of the scientist Galen:

• The bone at the base of the heart is missing.
• The human sternum consists of 3, and not 7 parts, as Galen stated (he made his discoveries based on the dissection of monkeys).
• The cardiac septum has a non-porous structure, as there are no holes in it.
• The vena cava does not begin in the liver, as Galen argued, but in the heart.
• Vesalius denied the existence of such an organ as the “rete mirabile” (wonderful plexus) - internal arteries that supposedly led from the brain to the heart.
• Women and men have the same number of ribs.
• The doctor denied the existence of a missing rib in men.
• Women and men have the same number of teeth (Galen believed that men had more teeth).

Andreas Vesalius's discovery

Andreas Vesalius was the first person to describe an aneurysm. He also brought back the forgotten method of the healer Hippocrates - the method of draining chest emphysema. While still a student, the scientist described the femur and discovered the seminal vessels. Here is another example of what Andreas Vesalius did for science, or more precisely for anatomical terminology: he introduced into it such new words as choana, anvil in the inner ear, alveolus, mitral valve of the heart.

Today we will talk about such a great scientist as Andreas Vesalius. You will find his photo and biography in this article. If anyone can be considered the father of anatomy, then, of course, Vesalius. He is a naturalist, creator and founder of modern anatomy. He began to be one of the first to study the human body through dissections. It is from him that all later achievements in anatomy originate.

Andreas Vesalius worked in very difficult times. The century in which he lived was marked by the dominance of the church in all areas of life, including medicine. were prohibited, and violations of this prohibition were severely punished. However, Andreas Vesalius had no intention of retreating. The contribution to biology of this scientist would have been much smaller if he had not risked overstepping taboos and traditions. But like many of those who were ahead of their time, he paid for his bold ideas.

Do you want to know more about such a great man as Andreas Vesalius, whose contribution to biology is invaluable? We invite you to get to know him better by reading this article.

Origin of Vesalius

Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) belongs to the Wieting family, who lived in Nymwegen for a long time. Several generations of his family were medical scientists. For example, Andreas's great-great-grandfather, Peter, was the rector and professor of the University of Louvain, a doctor himself. Being a bibliophile and fond of treatises on medicine, he spared no expense in acquiring manuscripts, spending part of his fortune on them. Peter wrote a commentary on the fourth book of Avicenna, the great Eastern encyclopedist. The book is called "The Canon of Medical Science."

Andreas's great-grandfather, John, was also a teacher. He worked at the University of Louvain, where he lectured in mathematics, and was also a doctor. Everard, John's son and Andreas' grandfather, also followed in his father's footsteps, pursuing a career in medicine. Andreas, the father of Andreas Vesalius, served as an apothecary for Charles V's aunt, Princess Margaret. Francis, our hero's younger brother, was also interested in medicine and became a doctor.

Childhood of a future scientist

On December 31, 1514, Andreas Vesalius was born. He was born in Brussels and grew up among doctors who visited his father's house. From a very young age, Andreas used a library of treatises on medicine that were passed down in this family from generation to generation. He developed an interest in this area of ​​knowledge. It should be said that Andreas was unusually erudite. He remembered all the discoveries that were made by different authors and commented on them in his writings.

Study at the University of Louvain and the College of Education

Andreas received a classical education in Brussels at the age of 16. In 1530 he became a student at the University of Louvain. It was founded in 1426 by Johann IV of Brabant. The university was closed after the French Revolution began. Students began studying there again in 1817. Latin and Greek, rhetoric and mathematics were taught here. In order to advance in science, one had to have a good knowledge of the languages ​​of antiquity. Andreas, dissatisfied with teaching, moved in 1531 to the College of Education, which was founded in 1517 in Louvain.

Vesalius's studies in Paris

Quite early, the future scientist Andreas Vesalius became interested in anatomy. With great passion, in his free time, Andreas dissected and dissected the corpses of domestic animals. Nikolai Floren, his father's friend and court physician, recommended the young man to go to Paris to study medicine. Later, in 1539, Andreas dedicated the work “Epistle on Bloodletting” to this man, in which he called him his second father.

So, Vesalius went to Paris in 1533 to study medicine. He has been studying anatomy here for 3-4 years, listening to lectures by a doctor from Italy, Guido-Guidi, better known as Jacques Dubois or Silvius, who was one of the first to study the anatomical structure of the peritoneum, vena cava, etc. on human corpses. Silvius lectured brilliantly. Vesalius also listened to Fernel, who was called the best doctor in Europe.

However, Andreas did not limit himself to the lectures of these two doctors. He also studied with Johann Gunther, who taught surgery and anatomy in Paris. He had previously lectured on Greek at the University of Louvain, after which he moved to Paris (in 1527), where he studied anatomy. Vesalius established cordial relations with Gunther.

Difficulties associated with autopsies

For anatomical research, Vesalius needed the corpses of the dead. However, great difficulties have always been associated with this issue. As you know, this activity was never considered a godly activity. The Church traditionally rebelled against him. Probably Herophilus was the only doctor who dissected corpses and was not persecuted for it. Vesalius, carried away by his scientific interest, went to the Cemetery of the Innocents. He also came to the place of execution of Villar de Montfaucon, where he challenged the corpse of this abbot from stray dogs.

In 1376, at the University of Montpellier, where the major subject was anatomy, doctors received permission to annually dissect the corpse of an executed criminal. This permission was given to them by the brother of Charles V, Louis of Anjou, who was the ruler of Languedoc. It was very important for the development of medicine and anatomy. Subsequently, this permission was confirmed by the French king, and then by Charles VIII. In 1496, the latter confirmed it with a letter.

Return to Louvain, continued research

Vesalius, having spent more than 3 years in Paris, returned to Louvain. Here he continued to study anatomy with Gemma Frisius, his friend, who later became a famous doctor. Making the first knitted skeleton was very difficult for Andreas Vesalius. Together with his friend, he stole the corpses of those executed, sometimes removing them in parts. At the risk of his life, Andreas climbed the gallows. At night, friends hid body parts in roadside bushes, after which, taking advantage of various occasions, they delivered them home. At home, soft tissues were cut off and bones were boiled. All this had to be done in the strictest secrecy. The attitude towards official autopsies was completely different. Adrian of Blegen, burgomaster of Louvain, did not interfere with them. On the contrary, he patronized young doctors and was sometimes present at autopsies.

Disputes with Driver

Andreas Vesalius argued with Driver, a teacher at the University of Louvain, about how bloodletting should be performed. Two opposing opinions have emerged on this issue. Galen and Hippocrates taught that bloodletting should be performed on the side of the diseased organ. Avicenna and the Arabs believed that this should be done from the opposite side. Driver supported Avicena, and Andreas supported Galen and Hippocrates. Dreaver was outraged by the young doctor's insolence. However, he answered him sharply. After this, Driver began to treat Vesalius with hostility. Andreas felt that it would be difficult for him to continue working in Louvain.

Vesalius goes to Venice

It was necessary to go somewhere for a while. But where? Spain disappears - here the Church had great power, and the autopsy of corpses was considered as desecration of the deceased. It was completely impossible. In France and Belgium it was also very difficult to study anatomy. Therefore, Vesalius went to He was attracted by the possibility of some freedom for his anatomical studies. Founded in 1222, the university in Padua became subject to Venice in 1440. Its Faculty of Medicine became the most famous medical school in Europe. Padua received favorably such a promising scientist as Andreas Vesalius, whose main merits were known to his professors.

Andreas becomes a professor

On December 5, 1537, the University of Padua awarded Vesalius a doctorate with the highest honors at a ceremonial meeting. And after Andreas' demonstration of dissection, he was appointed professor of surgery. Vesalius' responsibilities now included teaching anatomy. So at the age of 23, Andreas became a professor. Listeners were attracted by his bright lectures. Soon, under waving flags and the sound of trumpets, Andreas was appointed doctor at the court of the Bishop of Padua himself.

Vesalius had an active nature. He could not come to terms with the routine that dominated the anatomy departments of various universities. Many professors simply monotonously read excerpts from the works of Galen. Illiterate servants performed autopsies on corpses, and lecturers stood next to a volume of Galen in their hands and from time to time pointed to various organs with a wand.

Vesalius's first works

Vesalius published anatomical tables in 1538. They consisted of six sheets of drawings. The engravings were made by S. Kalkar, a student of Titian. In the same year, Vesalius republished the works of Galen. A year later, his own essay appeared, “Letters on Bloodletting.”

Andreas Vesalius, working on the publication of the works of his predecessors, became convinced that they described the structure of the human body based on the dissection of animals. In this way, erroneous information was transmitted that was legitimized by tradition and time. Studying the human body through dissection, Vesalius accumulated facts that he boldly contrasted with generally accepted canons.

"On the structure of the human body"

Andreas Vesalius, during the 4 years he was in Padua, wrote an immortal work called “On the Structure of the Human Body” (book 1-7). It was published in 1543 in Basel and was filled with many illustrations. In this work, Andreas Vesalius (photo of the cover of the work is presented above) gave a description of the structure of various systems and organs, pointed out many mistakes made by his predecessors, including Galen. It should be especially noted that after the appearance of this treatise, Galen’s authority was shaken, and after some time it was completely overthrown.

Vesalius' work laid the foundation for modern anatomy. In this work, for the first time in history, a completely scientific, and not speculative, description of the structure of the human body was given, which was based on experimental study.

Andreas Vesalius, the founder of modern anatomy, made a great contribution to its terminology. He took as a basis the names that he introduced in the 1st century. BC. Aulus Cornelius Celsus, "Cicero of Medicine" and "Latin Hippocrates".

Andreas brought uniformity to anatomical terminology. With rare exceptions, he threw out all the barbarisms of the Middle Ages. At the same time, he minimized the number of Greekisms. This can be explained to some extent by Vesalius's rejection of many of the provisions of Galen's medicine.

It is noteworthy that Andreas, being an innovator in anatomy, believed that the carriers of the psyche are “animal spirits” produced in the ventricles of the brain. This idea was reminiscent of Galen's theory, since these "spirits" were simply a renaming of the "psychic pneumata" that the ancients had written about.

"On the structure of the human brain"

“On the Structure of the Human Brain” is another work of Vesalius. This is the result of his study of the achievements of his predecessors in the field of anatomy. However, he is not the only one. Andreas Vesalius included the results of his own research in this book. Their contribution to science was much more important than the value of describing the achievements of their predecessors. The essay made a scientific discovery, which was based on new methods of study. They were of utmost importance for the development of science of that time.

Diplomatically lavishing praise on Galen and marveling at the versatility of his knowledge and vastness of mind, Vesalius only pointed out “inaccuracies” in the teachings of this physician. However, there were a total of more than 200 of them. In essence, they are a refutation of the most important provisions of Galenic teaching.

In particular, Vesalius was the first to refute his opinion that a person has holes in the heart septum through which blood supposedly passes from the right ventricle to the left. Andreas showed that the left and right ventricles do not communicate with each other in the postembryonic period. However, from the discovery of Vesalius, which refuted Galen’s ideas about the physiological nature of blood circulation, the scientist was unable to draw the correct conclusions. Only Harvey subsequently succeeded in this.

The ill-fated pamphlet Sylvia

A long-brewing storm erupted after the publication of this great work of Andreas Vesalius. His teacher, Silvius, always considered the authority of Galen indisputable. He believed that everything that did not agree with the view or description of the great Roman was erroneous. For this reason, Silvius rejected the discoveries made by his student. He called Andreas a “slanderer”, “proud”, “monster”, whose breath infects all of Europe. Silvius's students supported their teacher. They also spoke out against Andreas, calling him a blasphemer and an ignoramus. However, Silvius did not limit himself to insults. He wrote a scathing pamphlet in 1555 entitled “Refutation of the Slander of a Certain Madman...”. In 28 chapters, Silvius wittily ridicules his former friend and student and renounces him.

This pamphlet played a fatal role in the fate of the great scientist who was Andreas Vesalius. His biography would probably have been supplemented by many further interesting discoveries in the field of anatomy, if not for this document, imbued with jealous envy and malice. He united his enemies and created an atmosphere of public contempt around the name of Vesalius. Andreas was accused of being disrespectful of the teachings of Galen and Hippocrates. These scientists were not formally canonized by the Catholic Church, which was all-powerful at the time. However, their authority and judgments were accepted as the truths of Holy Scripture. Therefore, objecting to them was equivalent to rejecting the latter. Vesalius was also a student of Silvius. Therefore, if Silvius reproached his ward for slander, the accusation against him seemed plausible.

Let us note that Andreas’ teacher defended Galen’s authority not at all disinterestedly. The scientist’s indignation was due to the fact that Vesalius, while undermining Galen’s reputation, also destroyed Silvius himself, since his knowledge rested on the texts of the classics of medicine, carefully studied and passed on to his students.

The further fate of Andreas' department

Vesalius was mortally wounded by a pamphlet from Silvius. Andreas Vesalius could no longer recover from this blow, whose biography from that moment on was marked by many difficulties that our hero had to face.

Opposition to Andreas' views arose in Padua. One of his most active opponents was Real Colombo, a student of Vesalius and his deputy in the department. Columbo, after publishing Sylvia’s insinuation, sharply changed his attitude towards Andreas. He began to criticize him, trying to discredit the scientist in front of the students.

Vesalius left Padua in 1544. After this, Colombo was appointed to the department of anatomy. However, he only worked as her professor for a year. In 1545 Colombo moved to the University of Pisa. And in 1551 he took the chair in Rome and worked in this city until his death. Gabriel Fallopius succeeded Colombo at the See of Padua. He declared himself a student and heir of Vesalius and honorably continued his traditions.

Vesalius enters the royal service

Andreas Vesalius, the founder of scientific anatomy, was driven to despair by the evil fabrications of Silvius. He had to stop his research work. In addition, Vesalius burned some of the materials and manuscripts collected for his future works. In 1544, he was forced to switch to medical practice, entering the service of Charles V, who was at war with France at that time. As a military surgeon, Vesalius was supposed to go with him to the theater of operations.

In September 1544 the war ended. Andreas went to Brussels. Vesalius's father soon died here. After the death of his father, the scientist inherited and started a family. Charles V arrived in Brussels in January 1545. Andreas was to become his attending physician. Karl suffered from gout. He ate very lavishly. The doctor Andreas Vesalius made great efforts to alleviate his suffering.

In 1555 he abdicated the throne. Vesalius began to serve under Philip II, his son. The latter moved from Brussels to Madrid in 1559 along with his court, and Andreas and his family followed him.

Pilgrimage to Palestine, death

Vesalius began to be mercilessly persecuted. He was accused of stabbing a living person during the dissection of a corpse. Andreas Vesalius, whose contribution to medicine was enormous, was sentenced to death. Only thanks to the intercession of the king was it replaced by another punishment - a pilgrimage to Palestine. Vesalius had to go to the Holy Sepulcher. At that time it was a difficult and dangerous journey.

Already upon returning home, Andreas' ship was wrecked at the entrance to the Strait of Corinth. The scientist was thrown onto the island. Zante. Here he became seriously ill. On October 2, 1564, at the age of 50, the famous doctor died. Andreas Vesalius was buried on this pine-covered, secluded island.

The contribution to medicine of this scientist can hardly be overestimated. For his time, his achievements were simply revolutionary. Fortunately, the works of such a scientist as Andreas Vesalius were not in vain. His main discoveries were developed and supplemented by numerous followers, who appeared in increasing numbers after his death.

NIGHT on New Year's Eve 1515 - December 31, 1514. In Brussels, a son was born into the family of Andries Vesalius and his wife Elisabetta (née Krabbe), who was named Andreas (Russified - Andrey). This child was destined to glorify the Vesaliev family Much more than his father, the pharmacist of the Spanish king Charles V, than his grandfather, Everand Vesalius, a professor of mathematics and attending physician, than his great-grandfather, Kan Vesalius, a doctor and professor of medicine in Louvain, than even his great-great-grandfather, Pierre Vesalius. a prominent physician and a famous expert of Arabic manuscripts at that time.

It seemed to the parents of Andrei Vesalius that their son would represent the fifth generation of a medical dynasty

Vezaliev. In my parents' house on one of the outskirts of Brussels, where

Andrei's childhood was reminiscent of the life of his illustrious ancestors. The library contained thick manuscripts left over from my great-great-grandfather. Events from medical life were a constant topic of conversation. My father often traveled on business and upon his return would talk about his meetings with high-ranking clients. The mother, who surrounded Andrei with care and affection, began reading medical treatises to her son early. Being a cultured woman, she always tried to respect the medical traditions of her home. Very early, Andrei developed a respect for family heirlooms and a love for the medical profession. Childhood years largely predetermined the direction of Andrei Vesalius’s thought. The impressions gleaned from books attracted the boy to the path of independent study of nature. Interest in studying the body structure of domestic animals prompted him to decide to dissect the corpses of mice, birds, and dogs.

Elementary home schooling could not be thorough. In 1528 Vesalius is arranged to study at the college in Louvain. There he took a course in natural philosophy. He then switched to studying Greek, Arabic and Hebrew at a special college. But only Greek and Latin really captivate him. Here he achieves great success.

There is no doubt that Vesalius was influenced during this period by his teacher Gunther of Andernach (aka Gontier according to French sources) - a great expert in Latin and Greek. This medical scientist and philologist soon left Louvain and moved to Paris, taking the position of professor of medicine at the university. Perhaps this circumstance played a role in Vesalius’ decision to go to Paris to continue his education.

SYLVIUS

From 1533 to 1536 Vesalius is taking a course of study at the medical faculty of the University of Paris, whose reputation was asserted by such professors as Silvius (Jacques Dubois, 1478-1555), as well as professor of medicine Feriel (1447-1555), who had previously studied mathematics and astronomy. Gunther of Andernach (1487-1574) did not lose the prestige of the University of Paris and soon published a translation of Galen's book on anatomy. It is to him that we owe the introduction of the terms “physiology” and “pathology”.

Having set as his goal a thorough study of human anatomy, Vesalius meanwhile experienced bitter disappointment from the fact that the studies on the corpse were carried out very poorly. The anatomy course was taught by Silvius, who was considered an outstanding expert on this subject. A staunch admirer of Galen, Sylvius knew the anatomy of the brain well, developed blood vessels and independently studied the bones of the skeleton. Silvius's lectures attracted a wide audience. He brought order to anatomical terminology and taught students to strict systematics. Vesalius learned a lot of useful things from Silvius's lectures and always highly valued him as a scientist.

Sylvia's biography is very instructive. He grew up near Amiens (France) in a poor family of 15 children. His brother helped him study Latin, Greek and Arabic. At the medical faculty of the University of Paris, he early discovered a penchant for anatomy, but he received his doctorate only in 1531, at the age of 53. As a teacher, Silvius gained fame among students. But his literary works remained unnoticed. His name became famous thanks to Francois de Boe, who worked in the 17th century in Holland and described in detail the cerebral aqueduct, the lateral sulcus and the fossa on the surface of the cerebral hemispheres, which were given the name Sylvian.

A course of practical lessons in anatomy was given to demonstrators who were recruited from barbers. Subsequently, Vesalius cruelly mocked the autopsy procedure at the University of Paris. His teacher Gunther did not take part in these classes. Vesalius later wrote, as a friendly joke, that he saw a knife in the hands of his teacher only while eating.

Vesalius recalled that not a single bone was shown during anatomy classes. The demonstration of muscles was limited to the display of several abdominal muscles, haphazardly and carelessly prepared.

Apparently, Vesalius, while still in Louvain, practiced dismembering animal corpses and observed a section of human corpses. When he had to assist in classes in Paris, Silvius saw that Vesalius was better than the demonstrator at his task. The trust placed in the capable student helped to improve his art of dissection. As biographers point out, at the age of 20 Vesalius made his first discovery, proving that in humans the lower jaw, contrary to Galen’s data, is an unpaired bone.

If Silvius and Gunther constantly met with Vesalius in anatomy classes, then Video Vidius taught him surgery and had a significant influence on him as a representative of humanism. A native of Italy, Vidius in 1549. returned to Pisa, where he spent the last 20 years of his life. He was one of those who decisively and forever adopted the ideas of Vesalius.

Very little is known about Vesalius’s meetings with the major Parisian anatomist of that time, Charles Estienne (1504-1564), who knew human anatomy very well, was the first to study the seminal vesicles, discovered the subarachnoid space and studied the sympathetic trunk, proving its independence from the vagus nerve. His book “Dissection of Parts of the Human Body” (1545) competed with Vesalius’s treatise, although it was inferior to him in all respects. Cordier (1955) believes that Estienne, together with Sylvius, paid a lot of attention to venous valves and described some of them for the first time.

Estienne's fate was tragic. As a Protestant, he was subjected to repression and from 1564. spent the rest of his life in prison.

Among Gunther's other students, Vesalius met Miguel Servetus, with whom they studied anatomy together and helped Gunther.

Vesalius left the University of Paris with a good store of knowledge. He skillfully mastered anatomical technique and thoroughly knew the anatomy of Galen, besides which, as Gunther and Silvius taught him, there is no other anatomy. The level of knowledge and experience of Vesalius as a dissector can be judged by the remark of Gunther, who, in the Basel edition of Galen’s “Anatomical Exercises” (1536), assessing Vesalius’ participation in the preparation of the book, wrote about him as “a young, promising man. A Hercules of great promise, possessing extraordinary knowledge of medicine, trained in both languages, very skilled in dissecting a corpse." In 1535-1536 Vesalius takes part in the Franco-German war and at the end of it returns to Louvain, where he produces corpse sections and prepares skeletons. In February 1337 In Louvain, his comments on the 9th book of Rhazes’ “Almansor” are published as a separate brochure. The book was called “On the treatment of diseases from head to feet.” In the same year, Vesalius moved to Italy. For several months he completed an internship in medicine and anatomy in Venice and on December 5, 1537. in the city of Padua receives a doctorate in medicine. The most fruitful Padua period of his activity begins (1538-1543).

On the topic: “Andreas Vesalius, the father of modern anatomy”

Isakova Alla Shaditovna

Andreas Vesalius - founder of anatomy

If anyone can be called the father of anatomy, it is, of course, Vesalius. Andreas Vesalius, naturalist, founder and creator of modern anatomy, was one of the first to study the human body through dissection. All later anatomical acquisitions originate from him.

Andreas was born in Brussels on December 31, 1514, and grew up among the doctors who visited his father's house. From a young age, he used a rich library of medical treatises collected in the family and passed down from generation to generation. Thanks to this, the young and capable Andreas developed an interest in studying medicine. It must be said that he had extraordinary erudition: he remembered all the discoveries made by various authors, and commented on them in his writings.

Andreas Vesalius showed an early affinity for anatomy. In his free time from university studies, he dissected and carefully dissected domestic animals with great enthusiasm. This passion did not go unnoticed. The court physician and friend of Andreas' father, Nikolai Floren, who was interested in the fate of the young man, recommended that he study medicine, and only in Paris. Subsequently, in 1539, Vesalius dedicated his work “Epistle on Bloodletting” to Floren, calling him his second father.

In 1533, Andreas went to study medicine in Paris. Here he studied anatomy for three or four years, listening to lectures by an Italian doctor, better known as Vidius and Jacques Desbois. He was one of the first to begin anatomical studies of the structure of the vena cava, peritoneum, etc. on human corpses; invented the injection of blood vessels with dyes; described the appendix, the structure of the liver, the position of the vena cava, discovered the vein valves, etc.

Vesalius also attended lectures of the “modern Galen,” as Fernel, the best physician in Europe, was called. Jacques François Fernel, mathematician, astronomer, philosopher and physician, introduced several key concepts into medicine: “physiology” and “pathology”. He wrote a lot about syphilis and other diseases, studied, among other things, epilepsy and accurately distinguished the types of this disease. In 1530, the Paris Medical Faculty awarded him the degree of Doctor of Medicine, and in 1534 he received the title of Professor of Medicine. He was called the first doctor of France and one of the most venerable in Europe.

Vesalius did not limit himself to attending the lectures of Silvius and Fernel; he also studied with Johann Gunther, a Swiss from Anderlecht, who at that time taught anatomy and surgery in Paris. Vesalius established a more cordial relationship with Gunther than with Silvius. Gunther valued his student very much.

Anatomy classes involve practice on human material. Vesalius needed the corpses of dead people for anatomical research. But there have always been great difficulties with this issue. This activity, as we know, has never been a godly activity; the church has traditionally rebelled against it. Herophilus was probably the only doctor who, while dissecting corpses in Museion, was not persecuted for it. Carried away by the passion of scientific research, Vesalius went alone to the cemetery at night and there challenged stray dogs for their half-rotten prey.

After spending more than three years in Paris, in 1536 Vesalius returned to Louvain, where he continued to do what he loved together with his friend Gemma Frizius (1508-1555), who later became a famous doctor. Vesalius made his first knitted skeleton with great difficulty. Together with Frizius, they stole the corpses of those executed, sometimes removing them in parts, climbing the gallows at the risk of their lives. At night, they hid the body parts in roadside bushes, and then, taking advantage of various opportunities, took them home, where they cut off the soft tissue and boiled the bones. All this had to be done in the deepest secrecy.

Vesalius entered into a dispute with a teacher at the University of Louvain, Driver (1504-1554), about the best way to perform bloodletting. There were two opposing opinions on this issue: Hippocrates and Galen taught that bloodletting should be done from the side of the diseased organ, the Arabs and Avicenna suggested doing it from the opposite side of the diseased organ. Driver spoke out in support of Avicenna, Vesalius - Hippocrates and Galen. Dreaver was indignant at the young doctor’s insolence and responded sharply to him, and from then on began to dislike Vesalius. Vesalius felt that it would be difficult for him to continue working in Louvain.

It was necessary to go somewhere for a while. But where! In Spain the church was omnipotent; touching a knife to a human corpse was considered a desecration of the deceased and was completely impossible; in Belgium and France, autopsy of corpses was very difficult. Vesalius heads to the Venetian Republic, attracted by the opportunity to gain more freedom for anatomical research. The University of Padua, founded in 1222, became subject to Venice in 1440. The Faculty of Medicine became the most famous medical school in Europe. Padua greeted Vesalius favorably; his works “Anatomical Establishments” by Gunther and “Paraphrases” by Razi were already known there.

On December 5, 1537, the medical faculty of the University of Padua, at a ceremonial meeting, awarded him the academic degree of Doctor of Medicine, with the highest honors. After Vesalius publicly demonstrated dissection, the Senate of the Venetian Republic appointed him professor of surgery with an obligation to teach anatomy. He became a professor at the age of 23. His bright lectures attracted listeners from all faculties. Soon, to the sound of trumpets and waving flags, he was proclaimed a doctor at the palace of the Bishop of Padua.

The active nature of Vesalius could not put up with the routine that reigned in the anatomy departments of many universities, where professors monotonously read long excerpts from the works of Galen. Autopsies of corpses were performed by illiterate servants, and professors with a voluminous volume of Galen in their hands stood nearby and from time to time pointed with a wand to various organs as they were mentioned in the text

In 1538, Vesalius published anatomical tables - 6 sheets of drawings, engraved by Titian's student, the artist S. Kalkar. In the same year, he undertook a republication of Galen’s works and a year later published his “Letters on Bloodletting.” While working on the publication of the works of his predecessors, Vesalius became convinced that they described the structure of the human body based on sections of animal body organs, conveying erroneous information legitimized by time and tradition. Studying the human body through dissection, Vesalius accumulated indisputable facts, which he decided to boldly contrast with the canons of the past. During his four years in Padua, Vesalius wrote his immortal work “On the Structure of the Human Body” (books 1-7), which was published in Basel in 1543 and was richly illustrated. It provides a description of the structure of organs and systems, and points out numerous mistakes of predecessors, incl. Galena. It should be especially emphasized that after the appearance of Vesalius’s treatise, Galen’s authority was shaken and then overthrown.

By coincidence, the treatise appeared in the year of Copernicus’s death, and at the same time Copernicus’s book “On the Revolution of the Celestial Bodies” was published, which revolutionized not only astronomy, but also in the worldview of people. By the way, the son of a merchant, Canon Copernicus knew a lot about anatomy; at one time he studied at the medical faculty of the University of Padua, and upon returning to Poland from 1504 to 1512 he was engaged in healing with his uncle Bishop Wachenrode.

Vesalius's work was the beginning of modern anatomy; in it, for the first time in the history of anatomy, not a speculative, but a completely scientific description of the structure of the human body, based on experimental research, was given.

The father of anatomy, Vesalius made enormous contributions to anatomical terminology in Latin. Taking as a basis the names introduced by Aulus Cornelius Celsus (1st century BC), Vesalius gave uniformity to the anatomical terminology and threw out, with extremely rare exceptions, all medieval barbarisms. At the same time, he reduced Greekisms to a minimum, which can to some extent be explained by his rejection of many of the provisions of Galenic medicine. It is noteworthy that, being an innovator in anatomy, Vesalius believed that the carrier of the psyche were “animal spirits” that were produced in the ventricles of the brain. This view was reminiscent of Galen's theory, for these "spirits" were just a renamed "psychic pneum" of the ancients.

Vesalius’s work “On the Structure of the Human Body” is not only the result of the study of previous achievements in anatomy, but also a scientific discovery based on new research methods that had enormous revolutionary significance in the science of that time. Diplomatically lavishing praise on the “divine man” Galen and expressing surprise at the vastness of his mind and versatility of knowledge, Vesalius decides to point out only some “inaccuracies” in his teaching. But he numbers more than 200 such inaccuracies, and they are, in essence, a refutation of the main provisions of Galen’s teachings. Vesalius, in particular, was the first to refute the erroneous opinion of Galen and his other predecessors that there are supposedly holes in the human heart septum through which blood passes from the right ventricle of the heart to the left. He showed that the right and left ventricles of the heart do not communicate with each other in the postembryonic period. However, from this discovery, which fundamentally refuted Galen’s ideas about the physiological mechanism of blood circulation, Vesalius did not draw the correct conclusions; Harvey later drew them.

After the publication of Vesalius's great work, a long-brewing storm broke out. Silvius, the teacher of Vesalius, bowing to the authority of Galen, considered everything abnormal in the human body that did not agree with the description or view of the great Roman. For this reason, he rejected the discoveries of his student Vesalius. Without hiding his indignation, he calls Vesalius “a proud man, a slanderer, a monster, whose unholy breath infects Europe.” Silvius and his students presented a united front against Vesalius, calling him an ignoramus and a blasphemer. However, Sylvius did not limit himself to insults, he wrote a sharp pamphlet “Refutation of the slander of a certain madman on the anatomical works of Hippocrates and Galen, compiled by Jacob Sylvius, royal interpreter on medical issues in Paris” (1555). In 28 chapters of this pamphlet, Sylvius wittily ridicules his former student and friend, calling him not Vesalius, but "Vesanus", which in Latin means "mad", and, in the end, disowns him.

Silvius's pamphlet played a fatal role in the life of Vesalius. This document, imbued with malicious and jealous envy, united the enemies of the father of anatomy and created an atmosphere of public contempt around his immaculate name among the conservative camp of the then medical scientists. Vesalius was accused of disrespect for the teachings of Hippocrates and Galen, which were formally canonized by the then omnipotent Catholic Church, but their judgments and especially their authority were accepted as the indisputable truths of Holy Scripture, and objecting to them was tantamount to rejecting the latter. In addition, Vesalius was a student of Silvius, used his scientific advice, and if Silvius reproached Vesalius for slander, then the accusation against him seemed plausible. Silvius did not disinterestedly defend Galen's authority. His indignation was due to the fact that, by undermining the authority of Galen, Vesalius also destroyed him, for Silvius’ knowledge rested on the texts of the classics of medicine carefully studied and passed on to his students.

Silvius's pamphlet inflicted a mortal wound on Vesalius, from which he never recovered. Opposition to the scientific views of Vesalius arose in Padua. One of his most active opponents was his student and deputy at the department, Real Colombo (c. 1516-1559). After the insinuation appeared, Sylvia Colombo sharply changed his attitude towards his teacher: he began to criticize and tried to discredit him in front of the students. In 1544, when Vesalius left Padua, Colombo was appointed to the department of anatomy, but served as professor of the department for only a year. In 1545 he moved to the University of Pisa, and then, in 1551, took up a chair in Rome, where he worked until his death. Gabriel Fallopius (1523-1562) succeeded Colombo at the Padua See and declared himself the heir and disciple of Vesalius, continuing with honor his traditions.

The evil fabrications of Silvius led to the fact that Vesalius, driven to despair, stopped his research work and burned part of his manuscripts and materials collected for further works. Vesalius was forced in 1544 to switch to the field of medical practice, to the service of Charles V. At that time, Charles V was at war with France, and Vesalius, as the chief military surgeon, had to go to the theater of military operations. The war ended in September 1544, and Vesalius left for Brussels, where his father soon died. After the death of his father, Vesalius received an inheritance and decided to start a family. In January 1545, Charles V arrived in Brussels, and Vesalius was to assume the duties of attending physician to the emperor. Karl suffered from gout and was an immoderate eater. Vesalius had to make titanic efforts to alleviate the emperor's suffering. After the abdication of Charles V in 1555, Vesalius entered the service of his son, Philip II. In 1559, Philip II and his court moved from Brussels to Madrid, and Vesalius and his family followed him.

The Spanish Inquisition began to mercilessly persecute Vesalius, accusing him of allegedly killing a living person while dissecting a corpse, and eventually sentenced him to death. And only thanks to the intercession of Philip II, the execution was replaced by a pilgrimage to Palestine to the Holy Sepulcher. Returning from this dangerous and difficult journey at that time, at the entrance to the Strait of Corinth, Vesalius's ship was wrecked, and the father of modern anatomy was thrown onto the small island of Zante, where he became seriously ill and died on October 2, 1564, 50 years old. On this secluded island, covered with pine trees, the soul of the great anatomist rested forever.

VESALIUS, ANDREAS (Vesalius, Andreas) (1514–1564), Italian naturalist. Born December 31, 1514 (or January 1, 1515) in Brussels (Belgium). He studied medicine in Brussels, Louvain and Paris. In 1537 he received a bachelor's degree in medicine in Louvain, and in the same year he received a doctorate in medicine in Padua. From 1539 - professor at the University of Padua.

Vesalius's main scientific works are devoted to human anatomy. In 1538, the scientist published Anatomical Tables - six sheets of engravings made by Stefan Van Calcar, a student of Titian Vecelli. In them, Vesalius clarified and expanded the anatomical terminology, illustrated new data on the structure of the human body. Convinced that many of the anatomical texts of Galen, the famous Roman physician (c. 130–200 AD), were based on animal dissections and therefore did not reflect the specifics of human anatomy, Vesalius decided to undertake experimental studies of the human body. The result was a treatise on the structure of the human body (De humani corporis fabrica, 1543).

“Know yourself” (Nosce te ipsum) - this, in my own words, was the essence of anatomy, and Vesalius’s book greatly contributed to the process of knowledge. But a person is extremely resistant to delusions, especially a specialist, and a narrow specialist - even more so. And parting with delusions is like death. And the book of Vesalius, without claiming to be the absolute truth, forced us to rethink a lot anew, in accordance not with speculation - they, like shell rock, stuck to the bottom of the ship of knowledge, interfering with movement forward, but with the facts that were obtained through experiment and practice.

It must be said that Vesalius was not inclined to write a lot. Apart from the main book of his life, we know only a few of his publications. These are the famous “Tabullae anatomicae sex” (“Six anatomical tables”), which were the prelude to his main work. His letter on bloodletting from the right ulnar vein in inflammatory processes was also published as a separate publication. Since venous blood from the liver flows to the periphery, and its mixing occurs in the superior vena cava, then, according to Vesalius, even with left-sided pneumonia, bloodletting from the veins of the right arm can have a therapeutic effect. This work was a response to the fierce controversy on the issue of bloodletting and, to a certain extent, put an end to that controversy.
In addition to his main work, Vesalius wrote “Epitome”, published in the same 1543 as an annotation to his book. This is, if you like, anatomy for beginners in an accessible and concise form. By the way, according to experts, this book has not appeared in Russian, and no originals have been found in CIS libraries.
He has two more publications. This is a letter about the medicinal properties of a decoction of cinchona root (Basel, 1546) and a letter to Gabriel Fallopius with a response to his criticism (Venza, 1564) - the same Fallopius, whose name is given to the pipes he opened (that is, the oviducts through which the egg cell passes from the ovary into the uterus). So, in his first letter, Vesalius reports the successful use of a decoction of cinchona root for gout, simultaneously devoting several pages to defending his anatomical views. The second contains frank thoughts on the development of anatomy, examines the merits of Fallopius and notes with regret the premature departure of Vesalius from anatomy.

In 1543, Vesalius became the court physician of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, and acquired an extensive private practice and a high reputation. After the abdication of Charles V in 1556, he entered the service of his son Philip II, King of Spain. After the death in 1562 of Gabriele Fallopio, who occupied the department of anatomy in Padua, Vesalius decided to return to research work. Under the pretext of illness and a desire to make a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, he obtained permission to go on vacation. In May 1564, Vesalius received his former chair and, before the start of the new semester, went on a trip to Jerusalem. On the way back, the ship on which Vesalius was sailing was shipwrecked and washed up on the island of Zakynthos. Vesalius died on the island of Zakynthos in June 1564.

Preface to the Russian edition of Andrei Vesalius’ treatise “On the structure of the human body”

The period, not without reason called the Renaissance, breathes with bursting passion, the period of the beginning of free art and free research thought in the modern history of mankind. Initiation of this passion will always remain a powerful impetus for present artistic and research work. That is why artistic and scientific works of this period should be constantly before the eyes of current generations and, as far as science is concerned, in a form accessible to wide use, i.e. in native language. This fully justifies the appearance in Russian of the work of Andrei Vesalius entitled: “De Humani Corporis Fabrica” of 1543. The title alone sounds invigorating. He seems to be saying: here is the structure, now understand and further study the activities of this grandiose object. Vesalius's work is the first human anatomy in the modern history of mankind, which does not merely repeat the instructions and opinions of ancient authorities, but is based on the work of a free exploring mind.